managing group tours your complete reference guide to successful tour management

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This is a 2 cylinder model. The displacement for the pistons is 15.4. The bore for this outboard is 2.25 inches and the stroke is 1.94 inches. This engine has power steering and a recoil-type starter. RPM Information: 5100 Your engine's RPM range is important in choosing the right propeller for a given application. For example, if you look at your tachometer at top speed and it is not within the engine's RPM range then that is generally not good. You want your RPM's to be within the proper range while at wide open throttle (WOT). Be sure to do your testing under your normal boating conditions and with a good propeller (not bent, cracked, or excessively chipped). Information on this page is provided to you as a free service of iboats.com. 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Users have access to complete engine maintenance and repair information along with quick access buttons to Maintenance Schedules, Wiring Diagrams, Parts, Specification Charts, and a hyper-linked index. If you prefer traditional service manuals Seloc also offers a full line of printed engine repair and maintenence guides. From basic maintenance and troubleshooting to complete overhauls, our Force Outboard manuals provide the information you need. The most important tool in your toolbox may be your Clymer manual -- get one today. Includes Force Outboard Marine Repair ManualsIncludes Force Outboard Marine Repair ManualsIncludes Force Outboard Marine Repair ManualsDates of Publications Vary By Manual. All Rights Reserved. Outboard Motors Mercury Download Service and Repair Manuals.This Mercury 15 hp Outboard 2-Stroke Engine service manual download describes the service procedures for the complete motor. 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Share this document Share or Embed Document Sharing Options Share on Facebook, opens a new window Share on Twitter, opens a new window Share on LinkedIn, opens a new window Share with Email, opens mail client Copy Text Related searches Force outboard Footer menu Back to top About About Scribd Press Our blog Join our team. Quick navigation Home Books Audiobooks Documents, active. Superior quality and workmanship. Traditional to advanced digital platforms. Each built the only way we know how. For the best experience, consider updating your web browser.Give it the power it needs to continue propelling you on your adventures with a new Mercury outboard.Don’t be! Swapping out a propeller is far easier and faster than changing a flat tire on your car. This blog and video clearly shows you how to perform each step.Mercury Marine is a division of Brunswick Corporation. Although you can continue, some features of the website may not function as expected. For the best experience, we recommend using an alternate browser. For further information on how we use cookies and how to change your browser settings, please read our Cookie Policy. If you continue browsing the site, you agree to the use of cookies on this website. See our User Agreement and Privacy Policy.If you continue browsing the site, you agree to the use of cookies on this website. See our Privacy Policy and User Agreement for details.You can change your ad preferences anytime. It is this level of detail, along with hundreds of photos and illustrations, that guide the reader through each service and repair procedure. Complete download comes in pdf format which can work under all PC based windows operating system and Mac also, All pages are printable. Using this repair manual is an inexpensive way to keep your vehicle working properly. All pages are is great to have1976 JOHNSON EVINRUDE OUTBOARD 15 HP Service Repair Workshop Manual. Thank you very muchAt the bottom of theADD TO CART button. Click on it and you willPlease click here. Go back to the page.Now customize the name of a clipboard to store your clips. Dr Narayan Kulkarni deserves special mention and thanks for his continuous, untiring support and collaborative efforts to bring this book into the present form. I am lucky to have good friends like Nagarajappa Das, Ashith B Acharya, Dharam Hinduja, Basavaprabhu, Abdus, whose company I cherished, whose intellect and science I admired, and steered me towards academics and research rather than purely clinical practice. I wish to sincerely thank professor GS Kumar, my mentor and guide, Dr R Gowramma, my teacher for having given so much to all these important developments in my profession. I would also like to thank my teacher, mentor and philosopher, Dr C Bhasker Rao, Former Vice-President, Dental Council of India, New Delhi; Former Principal, SDM College of Dental Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka, India for his encouragement and support. I wish to thank and formally acknowledge the publishers for giving me an opportunity. I kept them waiting much longer than I care to mention. Last and not the most important, my special thanks to my dear wife Reshma and the little angel Dhruti who were neglected in various ways during the arduous hours required as I wrote these chapters to see that the book is completed. They were inspirational that has driven me onwards and kept me focused. Finally, I thank all who have helped me in their own ways even without me realizing the worth of their efforts. My sincere thanks, love and respect to all of them. Finally, I acknowledge every person who in some way or the other has motivated me and contributed towards accomplishing my objectives and dreams. Contents 1. Introduction Manjunatha BS, Dharam Hinduja ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? 1 Functions of Teeth? 2 Aims of Dental Anatomy? 2 Objectives of Dental Anatomy? 2 Scope of Dental Anatomy? 2 Evolution of Teeth? 3 Definitions? 3 The Deciduous Dentition? 3 The Permanent Dentition? 4 Dental Formula? 4 2. Definitions and Meaning of Terms Used in Dental Anatomy Manjunatha BS, Dharam Hinduja 5. Terms?5 ? Parts of a Tooth? 6 ? Structures (Tissues) of a Tooth? 7 ? Surfaces of a Tooth? 8 ? Terms Used in the Description of Morphology of a Tooth? 10 ? Tooth Form and Function? 20 ? Division of Tooth in Different Directions? 21 ? Line and Point Angles of Different Teeth? 22 3. Tooth Numbering Systems Manjunatha BS 24. Calcium and Phosphorus Metabolism 204 Manjunatha BS Manjunatha BS. Physiological Functions of Calcium? 204 ? Distribution in the Body? 205 ? Dietary Sources of Calcium? 205 ? Calcium Absorption? 206 ? Recommended Dietary Allowance? 206 ? Calcium Balance? 207 ? Calcium Homeostasis? 207 ? Parathyroid Hormone? 208 ? Calcitonin?210 ? Vitamin D? 211 ? Effects of Other Hormones on Calcium Metabolism? 212 ? Applied Physiology? 212 ? Phosphate Metabolism? 213 xxii? ??Textbook of Dental Anatomy and Oral Physiology 16. Functions of Teeth 216 17. Pain 218 Manjunatha BS Nagarajappa Das, Manjunatha BS. History?218 ? Components of Pain? 218 ? Types of Pain? 219 ? Theories of Pain? 220 ? Distribution of Pain Receptors? 222 ? Pathway of Pain in Orofacial Region? 222 ? Dentinal Sensitivity and Pulpal Pain? 222 ? Control of Pain? 225 18. Saliva Manjunatha BS 226. Definitions It is the branch of dentistry which deals with gross structure, mainly the morphology of the tooth and its associated parts. It is the branch of dentistry which deals with the art and science of basic morphological, anatomical and functional relationships of teeth, jaws and their associated structures needed for normal harmony of an individual. It is a branch of medicine and dentistry, which comprises of the study of morphology of both tooth and its associated structures including masticatory system. Dental anatomy not only includes the study of tooth morphology, but also involves roots, pulp chambers, crown contours, contacts and embrasures associated with the crowns of teeth. Tooth: Teeth are mineralized structures except for the pulp and are located in first part of the digestive tract. A tooth is defined as “one of the hard tissues that are positioned on the jaws and help in holding and mastication of food, also as weapons of offense and defense in lower animals”. The designs of the teeth are a reflection of eating habits. Teeth of a man are formed for cutting, tearing and grinding of food substances. Human dentitions are divided into many classes of teeth based on the appearance and function or position. Their size gradually becomes smaller from the first to third molar. Each molar has four or five cusps; these teeth are shorter and more blunt in shape than other teeth and provide a broad surface for grinding and chewing solid masses of food. The detailed description of each tooth is given in following chapters. 2? ??Textbook of Dental Anatomy and Oral Physiology Functions of teeth Human beings have teeth with rich and unique anatomic characteristics and thus necessitate a comprehensive learning. The normal tooth form is extremely varied with every individual and is very difficult to reproduce. Each function of a tooth is described in respective chapters and in chapter 16, page 217. Scope of Dental Anatomy Though currently the use of computers and computer assisted graphics have helped out in teaching dental anatomy in three dimensional views, drawing and dental carving are considered to be very practical and objective methods for teaching and motivating dental students to obtain the knowledge till today. The knowledge of dental anatomy is fundamental for the practice of any branch of dentistry. Carving of tooth helps in preparation of crown and bridge and other esthetic and restorative treatments. The purpose of carving is to restore, in general by means of total or partial reconstruction, one or more parts of a tooth in its form and function as also to reestablish the lost balance in the physiology of mastication. Example: Fishes, amphibians, and most reptiles. Example: Seen in lower vertebrates, mainly fishes. As we all know, human beings have two sets of dentition: a deciduous and a permanent set. The oral cavity is divided into 4 quadrants, which represent one side of a jaw and each quadrant contains 5 deciduous teeth or 8 permanent teeth or combination of both depending on the age of the individual, which is discussed in detail in succeeding chapters. There are a total of 20 primary 4? ??Textbook of Dental Anatomy and Oral Physiology teeth (8 incisors, 4 cuspids and 8 molars). The last teeth usually erupt in by 24 months. Specifically, no premolars are developed in this dentition. There are a total of 32 secondary teeth (8 incisors, 4 cuspids, 8 premolars and 12 molars). The first secondary tooth to erupt in the oral cavity is the first molar, and it usually erupts around 6 years of age. The last to erupt is the 3rd molar at around the age of 21 years. Dental Formula It is a way of designating or indicating the number or arrangement of teeth for a given species, but used mainly for mammalian teeth. Teeth of the upper jaw are listed over the lower jaw. The dental formula is described only on one side of the jaw, which represents the teeth on one side of the face of both jaws and is done so because the jaw is bilaterally symmetrical. The incisors are indicated first, followed by the canine, premolars and molars. The disadvantage of this dental formula is that the sides of the jaw cannot be indicated. If deciduous teeth are explained, it will be specified. Further Reading 1. Ash M M and Stanley J N, 2003. Wheeler’s dental anatomy, physiology, and occlusion. 8th edition. 2. Siessere S, Vitti M, de Sousa LG, Semprini M, Regalo SCH. Educational material of dental anatomy applied to study the morphology of permanent teeth. Braz Dent J 2004;15(3):238-42. Chapter 2 Definitions and Meaning of Terms Used in Dental Anatomy Manjunatha BS, Dharam Hinduja Eyes can’t see what mind doesn’t know It is very much essential to be familiar with the basic knowledge of the subject when someone enters a new field of study. Without adequate knowledge in the field, one cannot understand or learn the subject properly. So it is very important to know definitions, meaning and explanations of many terminologies used in description of tooth morphology. Teeth are of different groups namely incisors, canines, premolars and molars, depending on their shape, size and functions. They are bounded by the lips, cheeks and tongue on either side. Anterior teeth are the six upper and six lower front teeth that consists of incisors and canines. Incisors are used to cut the food. Cuspids are meant for the function of gripping and tearing food. Other than these prime functions, anterior teeth have significance in proper phonation and aesthetics of an individual. Mastication or chewing is the major function of posterior teeth. PARTS OF A TOOTH Each tooth consists of a crown and a root joined at a slightly thinner part, called the neck. Anatomical Crown It is that part of the crown of a tooth which is covered by enamel surface. Clinical Crown It is that part of the tooth that is visible or exposed to outside in the oral cavity. This may be larger or smaller than the anatomic crown. The clinical crown is larger, when some part of the anatomic root is exposed due to recession or reduction in the size of gingiva. Anatomical Root It is that part of the root of a tooth which is covered by cementum surface. Clinical Root Part of the tooth present within the gingiva and is not exposed to oral cavity. Cervical line It is a thin line, which separates the anatomic crown and the anatomic root. It is also termed as cemento-enamel junction. Definitions and Meaning of Terms Used in Dental Anatomy? ?? 7 Root Trunk It is that part of the root which starts from the cervical line to the furcation area of multirooted teeth. Furcation It is the junction of roots in multirooted teeth mainly in posterior teeth. Bifurcation and trifurcation: It is the junction of two and three roots in multirooted posterior teeth. Apex It is the tapered end of the root tip of a tooth. Pulp chamber: The part of the pulp cavity seen only in the crown of a tooth. Pulp canal: The part of the pulp cavity seen in the root canal(s) of a tooth. Pulp horn: It is the highest point or peak of the pulp chamber, which corresponds to the cusp or incisal tips located in the crown of a tooth. In contrast, it is a living tissue and is less hard than enamel. It contains nerves and blood vessels, which enter the tooth through the apical foramen at the tip of the root. Enamel, dentin and cementum are hard tissues of the tooth. It is advised to refer an oral histology text book for complete detailed information regarding the microscopic structure and histological features of these individual tissues of a tooth. Fig. 2.2: Microscopic structure of the tooth and associated parts SURFACES OF A TOOTH Both anterior and posterior teeth have five surfaces, which are named according to their positions and uses (Fig. 2.3). These are named so for the convenience of the clinician in practice and record maintenance. Technically, only anterior teeth have a close relationship with lips. Applies only to posterior teeth, where the cheeks are present instead of lips.A number of technical terms are derived and in use for this, giving a wide range of meaning in various fields. It is defined as “a functional elevation or a peak present on the chewing (incisal or occlusal) surface of the crown of a tooth, which divides the respective surface into many parts”. It is found on cuspids and on the chewing surfaces of bicuspids and molars. It runs cervico-occlusally approximately in the center of buccal surface. It is designated so because two slopes of each side of the ridge meet to form a triangular ridge and resemble two sides of a triangle. It makes up the bulk of the cervical part of the lingual surface of anteriors (Fig. 2.10). It is prominent in permanent than in deciduous teeth and also in maxillary than mandibular teeth. Fig. 2.10: Cingulum from proximal and lingual surfaces Tubercle It is a small elevation present on the crown of a tooth due to extra formation of enamel. For example, tubercle of Carabelli present on the palatal aspect of mesiopalatal cusp of permanent maxillary first molar and maxillary deciduous 2nd molar. Tubercle of Carabelli is a small additional cusp, first described in 1842 by George Carabelli. Eminence It is a prominence or projection of a bone or enamel on a tooth surface. Canine eminence is very prominent on the labial aspect of the root surface of permanent maxillary canine, which has a cosmetic value. Other bicuspids have mesial and distal triangular fossa, but do not have a central fossa. Central fossa is considered as major fossa (Fig. 2.13). Fig. 2.13: Central fossa in posterior tooth Definitions and Meaning of Terms Used in Dental Anatomy? ?? 15 Developmental Depression It is a long, narrow, linear depression on the long axis of mesial and distal surfaces of the root of a tooth, formed during the development of the tooth. Developmental Groove It is a short, shallow, line or depression between primary parts of the crown or root of a tooth formed during the development. It is a small defect in the enamel of crown of the tooth, usually present at the junction of four formative lobes of a developing tooth. For development of any tooth minimum of 4 lobes are necessary. These projections wear away soon after eruption due to masticatory forces. They are three in number which are mesial, middle and distal named according to the lobe. Mesial is the largest and middle is the smallest (Fig. 2.19B). 18? ??Textbook of Dental Anatomy and Oral Physiology Figs 2.19A and B: Mamelons in newly erupted teeth Crest of Curvature It is the greatest convexity or the bulge on the surface of a tooth. Contact Point It is the crest of curvature on the proximal surface of the crown of a tooth where two adjacent teeth of the same arch are in contact for proper alignment in the jaw. Contact Area It is the crest of curvature on the proximal surface of the crown of a tooth where two adjacent teeth of the same arch are in contact for proper alignment in the jaw. Diastema It is the space between two adjacent teeth that don’t contact with each other which are supposed to be present normally. Interproximal Space This is the triangular space seen between two adjacent teeth, cervical to the contact area. There are different types of embrassures named according to the surfaces it is located. From the facial (labial for anteriors and buccal for posteriors) and lingual aspects, all permanent teeth can be roughly described as trapezoidal. The incisal side forms the base of the trapezoid, while the cervical represents the shorter parallel side. This shape helps in proper functioning of the anterior teeth. The apex at the incisal in the form of a wedge facilitates in tearing, biting and incising food. This form and inclination allows for proper interlocking of the mandibular and maxillary posterior teeth during mastication. Other two thirds of the crown is named differently according to direction of the tooth division. Cervicoincisally or cervico-occlusally, the crown of a tooth can be divided as incisal or occlusal third, middle third and cervical third. The root of a tooth can also divided as cervical third, middle third and apical third. The division is done in horizontal direction as shown in following figures: Mesiodistally, the crown of a tooth is divided as mesial third, middle third and distal third, in vertical direction. Anterior teeth have six line angles such as follows (Table 2.1): Table 2.1: List of line angles in anterior teeth Sl. No 1. Line angle formed Surfaces involved Mesiolabial Mesial and labial 2. Distolabial Distal and labial 3. Mesiolingual Mesial and lingual 4. Distolingual Distal and lingual 5. Labioincisal Labial and incisal 6. Linguoincisal Lingual and incisal The mesial and distal parts of incisal angles of anterior teeth are rounded, the respective line angles are considered as nonexistent. Posterior teeth have eight line angles such as follows (Table 2.2): Table 2.2: List of line angles in posterior teeth Sl. No Line angle formed Surfaces involved 1. Mesiobuccal Mesial and buccal 2. Distobuccal Distal and buccal 3. Mesiolingual Mesial and lingual 4. Distolingual Distal and lingual 5. Mesio-occlusal Mesial and occlusal 6. Disto-occlusal Distal and occlusal 7. Bucco-occlusal Buccal and occlusal 8. Linguo-occlusal Lingual and occlusal Point Angle A point angle is formed at the junction of three surfaces where they meet each other and derives its name by the combination of all three surfaces join it. Anterior teeth have four point angles, which are as follows (Table 2.3): Table 2.3: List of point angles in anterior teeth Sl. No Point angle Surfaces involved 1. Mesiolabio-incisal Mesial, labial and incisal 2. Distolabio-incisal Distal, labial and incisal 3. Mesiolinguo-incisal Mesial, lingual and incisal 4. Distolinguo-incisal Distal, lingual and incisal Definitions and Meaning of Terms Used in Dental Anatomy? ?? 23 Fig. 2.23: Line angle and point angle Even posterior teeth have four point angles which are (Fig. 2.23 and Table 2.4): Table 2.4: List of point angles in posterior teeth Sl. No Point angle Surfaces involved 1. Mesiobucco-occlusal Mesial, buccal and occlusal 2. Distobucco-occlusal Distal, buccal and occlusal 3. Mesiolinguo-occlusal Mesial, lingual and occlusal 4.